The Effects of Stress Among Female Registered Nurses Essay Example for Free

The Effects of Stress Among Female Registered Nurses Essay Prior research has suggested that nurses, regardless of workplace or culture, are confronted with a variety of stressors. As the worldwide nursing shortage increases, the aged population becomes larger, there is an increase in the incidence of chronic illnesses and technology continues to advance, nurses continually will be faced with numerous workplace stressors. Thus, nurses need to learn how to identify their workplace stressors and to cope effectively with these stressors to attain and maintain both their physical and mental health. This article describes workplace stressors and coping strategies, compares and contrasts cross-cultural literature on nurses workplace stressors and coping strategies, and delineates a variety of stress management activities that could prove helpful for contending with stressors in the workplace. (Lambert and Lambert 2010, Nurses’ workplace stressors and coping strategies). In Baguio City, hospital nurses are not spared from the environmental culprit called stress. They are too prone to this even a seated individual can easily observe, but stress as they say always come with the work, nurses chose to be of service to the sick, and sick people are in the verge of experiencing most of the stresses, sometimes the nurses who takes good care of them are the absorbers to some of these stresses. Possibly yet, stress is also present in the work place when nurses are overworked and unavoidably there are build up tension among themselves causing now a strained working relationship. According to Betty Neuman, a nurse theorist she said that stressful environment causes the majority of illnesses and when it becomes severe and neglected it could lead to death. Stress has been categorized as an antecedent or stimulus, as a consequence or response, and as an interaction. It has been studied from many different frameworks (or perspectives? ). For example, Selye proposed a physiological assessment that supports considering the association between stress and illness. Conversely, Lazarus advocated a psychological view in which stress is â€Å"a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being. † Nevertheless, stress has been regarded as an occupational hazard since the mid-1950. In fact, occupational stress has been cited as a significant health problem. Work stress in nursing was first assessed in 1960 when Menzies identified four sources of anxiety among nurses: patient care, decision making, taking responsibility, and change. The nurse’s role has long been regarded as stress-filled based upon the physical labor, human suffering, work hours, staffing, and interpersonal relationships that are central to the work nurses do. Since the mid-1980s, however, nurses’ work stress may be escalating due to the increasing use of technology, continuing rises in health care costs, and turbulence within the work environment. (B. M. Jennings, 2010, Work Stress and Burnout among Nurses). The writer’s opinion with regards to the sudden rise and use of technology in the hospital, these are true and stressful especially among older nurses. Some of them feel intimidated about it since they need to learn how to use computerized gadgets and equipments needed to fasten treatment. Some institutions require knowledge to advance technology in order to be hired, some they assume all nurses are computer literate, if they are not; this becomes a failure to their evaluation which later on could serve as basis for their termination a major impact to the life of a nurse. Workplace stress can be described as the physical and emotional outcomes that occur when there is disparity between the demands of the job and the amount of control the individual has in meeting those demands. Anytime stress occurs, it is an indication that the demands placed upon the person have exceeded the persons personal resources, whether these resources are physical, emotional, economic, social, or spiritual. Thus, workplace stress occurs when the challenges and demands of work become excessive, the pressures of the workplace exceed the workers ability to handle them, and job satisfaction turns to frustration and exhaustion. (Lambert and Lambert, 2010). Nevertheless, work stress and burnout remain significant concerns in nursing, affecting both individuals and organizations. For the individual nurse, regardless of whether stress is perceived positively or negatively, the neuroendocrine response yields physiologic reactions that may ultimately contribute to illness. In the health care organization, work stress may contribute to absenteeism and turnover, both of which detract from the quality of care. Hospitals in particular are facing a workforce crisis. The demand for acute care services is increasing concurrently with changing career expectations among potential health care workers and growing dissatisfaction among existing hospital staff. By turning toxic work environments into healthy workplaces, researchers and nurse leaders believe that improvements can be realized in recruitment and retention of nurses, job satisfaction for all health care staff, and patient outcomes particularly those related patient safety (B. M. Jennings, Chapter26 Work Stress and Burnout among Nurses: Role of the Work Environment and Working Conditions). In one article entitled â€Å"Job Stressors and Coping Mechanisms among Emergency Department Nurses in the Armed Force Hospitals in Taiwan† it states that, nurses, as one of the professional service groups, tend to be exposed to extreme workloads. Their works are generally characterized by having a high contagious potential, being labor-intensive, having an overwhelming job shifting, and experiencing malicious complaints from patients. Compare to other general and professional service jobs, nursing requires handling complicated and dynamic occurrences under strict time pressures. Studies have generally revealed that continuously excessive workloads tend to lower their job satisfaction and deteriorate in turnover intentions. These contextual difficulties indeed continuously challenge a nurse’s temper and professional performance. This may be particularly true for nurses in the emergency departments of the AFH. (Wei-Wen Liu, Feng-Chuan Pan, Pei-Chi wen Sen-Ji Chen, Su-Hui-Lin, 2010). In another study entitled â€Å"Effects of job rotation and role stress among nurses on job satisfaction and organizational commitment†, they mentioned that Job rotation inspires nurses to achieve higher performance, allowing continuous growth at work, extended knowledge and skill, and increasing clinic patient care-taking quality. Scholars have all proposed that job rotation may help employees to acquire multiple capabilities and expand vision, and that it can be an approach to reduce job burnout. But emotional pressure often occurs in the work environment where interpersonal interactions are highly involved. Especially, the nurses working at hospitals not only implement independent and professional nursing activities in accordance with doctors advice, but take responsibility for any immediate threat to patients lives as well. Thus, the importance of nurses is undeniable, and the influence of urses qualities and capabilities on medical care quality can never be ignored. Therefore, the primary concern of the practical field of medical care is to exhaustively recognize how role stress among nurses could affect their job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and effectively utilize the job rotation system to enhance and develop nurses job satisfaction and organizational commitment, in order to promote competitive advantages (Wen-Hsien Ho, Ching S. Chang, Ying-Ling Shih and Rong-Da Liang, 2010, Effects of Job Rotation and role stress among nurses on job satisfaction and organizational Commitment). It is the writer’s point of view that stressful lives among nurses are sometimes not all related to work, some nurses go to work stressed. This maybe due to presence of children, relationships or overworked at home so that when they report for work they are already exhausted and becomes exhausted all the more if there are many patients to attend to. These are also true most especially among women, since they do much of the work at home; attending to school activities of their children and attending to the needs of the whole family, physically, financially, and socially they become vulnerable to stress and illness. Despite all the work stress that the nurses endure, there are also some ways that help nurses cope with stress. To keep them physically, emotionally, and mentally stable if not strong, they divert their attention to activities which they consider relaxing. Nurses learn techniques on how to control their temper when being stressed at work, for some they just endure tensions and exhaustion but once they reached home it is there that they find comfort and peace of mind, but to others, home sometimes adds to more stress, so they prefer staying out like malling. In an article entitled â€Å"Nurses’ Workplace stressors and coping strategies† it describes strategies to help nurses cope; coping can be defined as the constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person. Coping activities may be problem-focused in that they are directed externally and involve attempts to manage or change the problem causing the stress. On the other hand, coping activities may be emotion-focused in that they are internally directed and involve attempts to alleviate emotional distress. Examples of problem-focused coping includes problem-solving activities, recognizing ones role in solving a problem and confronting the situation by using some degree of risk-taking behavior; while emotion-focused coping includes wishful thinking, avoidance of confrontive behavior, and detachment or disengagement from the situation. This study will use the Integrative Transactional Process Model by Beehr and Schuler to guide on the effects of stress among registered Nurses in the workplace. According to the Integrative Transactional Process Model by Beehr schuler’s 1982, it corporate environmental stressors, perceptions, the stress response and stress outcomes, plus a host of moderator variables. The environmental stressors pertain to what the registered nurse encounters in his/her workplace perceived as stressful stimuli. The coping mechanisms that registered nurses utilize in combating the effect of stress to her/himself pertains to the perceptions and the response of a registered nurse to stress. This method model is in accordance with Lazaru’s conceptualization of stress by focusing on the role of cognitive appraisal (individual perception) which also highlights the nature of the (mis) fit between the organism and the environmental demands. The discrepancy between, whether challenges or goals, and the way the person perceives his potential responses to his demands cognitive stress. It is the person’s own perception of the stressful event and the appraisal of one’s ability to cope that stress. Time (duration of stress) is incorporated through the separation of the immediate perception of stress and longer term response segment of model. The name of the model implies that its relationship is reciprocal, happens across time and/or stressor and integrated diverse areas of theory. This had implied the importance of time in the stress process. That is why the years of service and the age of the registered nurse was taken as variables in the scope of the study. Individual and contextual differences such as organizational changes, job qualities personal experiences, and individual needs/values are given central role in the models which are also considered strengths of this model. These qualities correlate to the variables specifically to the ward assignments of these registered nurses and their working relationship among nurse supervisors and other health personnel. Their everyday encounter in the workplace give them the opportunity to gain experience which maybe a nurturing or bad experience that may contribute to the stress of the registered nurse. This model considers the individual and contextual differences among registered nurses which in the study pertaining to their age and gender. The aim of the study is to find out the following effects of stress among registered nurses in the workplace. It specifically aims to find answers to the questions: 1. ) what are the effects of stress among registered nurses in the workplace considering the following a. ) Physical health b. ) Emotional health c. ) Mental health 2. ) Is there a significant difference on the effects of stress among registered nurses considering the following a. Age b) Gender and c. )Years of service in the hospital, 3. ) Is there a significant difference on the effects of stress among registered nurses when assigned to a. ) Emergency ward b. ) Operating Room c. ) Surgical ward, and lastly, 4) What are the coping mechanisms utilized by registered nurses to overcome stress in the workplace?   This study is for the nurses themselves, the outcome of this will serve as a guide for them to determine, where thus the highest stress related factor occur in the lives of hospital nurses particularly the female nurses. It will be an eye opener for them in a way that they will know that simple interaction among other people could mean two different things; it can be negative or positive in effect that could cause stress. To the nursing profession especially in the field of research, this study would serve as a tool to use, as a source of information and guide not only among nurses but to other health practitioners as well, from this output, they can yield flyers or pamphlets entitled â€Å"what causes stress in the workplace†, which would contain vital information’s about stress, its causes and effects to ourselves and to the people that surrounds us. Lastly, to the Hospital administrators, this research would serve as a source of information, so that they will become aware, up to what extent does stress do among workers. This could also serve as basis in giving rest days among workers when needed. â€Å"A well rested employee becomes a productive, efficient and successful employee†. The study will utilize a questionnaire in the form of a self-assessment checklist that was developed by the researchers based on review of literatures. The first part of the questionnaire is a letter to the respondents that informs them of the purpose of the study to give full disclosure of information. The second part includes the demographic data inclusive of name (which is optional) and workplace of the respondents, followed by the questionnaire proper. This will be answered by the respondents thru checking the correct rating in assessing the Effects of Stress among Registered Nurses in the Workplace. The questionnaire will be subjected by a research expert, Ms. Geraldine D. Delson, M.A.N. She was chosen to validate the questionnaire for the reason that she is an instructor in the SLU- School of Nursing, major in Psychiatry and therefore she is well-knowledgeable on the topic. She will be asked to evaluate the relevance of the items in the questionnaire using a four-point scale, where a score of 1 is not relevant, 2 as somewhat relevant, 3 as quite relevant and 4 as very relevant. After rating, all the items with a score of 3 and 4 will be counted and divided by the total number of items in the questionnaire. Her comments and suggestions will be taken into consideration during the revision of the tool. Reliability of the questionnaire will be subjected to a preliminary item analysis. The questionnaire will be distributed to thirty (30) staff nurses having their duty at the operating room, emergency ward and medical-surgical ward of SLU-Hospital of the Sacred Heart. After answering, the questionnaires will be collected and will be asked for their comments and feedbacks regarding the questionnaire. Answers in the tool will be checked by the researchers to check for presence of ambiguity. Their comments will be taken into consideration in the revision of the tool before finally floating it. In the data gathering procedure, initially, the researchers will be giving a letter to the Chief Administrator of the Hospital informing her about the purpose of the study and that their respective Institution is chosen to be the locale wherein a number of nurses having their duty there will be taken as the respondents. Also, the letter will ask for permission to float questionnaires to the chosen respondents. After granted the permission, data gathering follows. During the data collection, the researchers will be given different hospital wards based from the selected special wards of SLU-Hospital of the Sacred Heart where they will collect data. In all the special wards chosen, the researchers will introduce themselves to the respondents and will establish rapport. The researchers will also inform the participants of the purpose and nature of the study before consent will be taken. In cases wherein the respondents decline to be part of the study, their decision will be respected. For the respondents who will agree, the researchers will present the checklist and they will give instructions as to how they will answer it. After giving the necessary instructions and reminders, the respondents will be given enough time to answer the questionnaire. The researchers will maintain a distance of 1-2 meters from the respondents while the questionnaires are being answered. To ensure anonymity, names will not be required to be written. The researchers will emphasize that any unanswered item will make their whole answers invalid. To prevent such occurrence, the researchers will stay with the respondents and double check on the answers of the questionnaire once it is passed to the researcher. After the respondents finish answering the checklist, the researchers will retrieve it and the researchers’ gratitude for participation will be expressed. The researchers will assure the respondents that they will be informed of the results of the study. After collecting the checklist, the researchers will check it for any unanswered item. All incompletely filled out questionnaire will be disregarded. The data collected will be collated, tabulated, organized and analyzed. Descriptive statistics will be used to describe and summarize the data that will be gathered, making the data readily comprehensible. Through it, the researchers will be able to identify significant differences between the variables of the study. Frequency count and percentage (Sanchez, 1988) will be utilized to measure and compare data such as age, total number of male and female nurse respondents and years of service. For the physical, emotional and mental health effects, as well as the effects on whether they are nurses assigned at the operating room, emergency department or the surgical department, frequency count, and the coping mechanisms utilized, weighted mean and ranking will be used. Weighted mean measures the average of the responses (f) in relation to the weight or the rating (r) allotted to the said response. To determine the significant difference on the respondents responses on the effects of stress among registered nurses in the workplace, nurses are grouped based on age and gender, the F-test or analysis of variance (ANOVA) test ( Tan, 1997) will be utilized. A statistical technique designed to whether the means of more than two quantitative populations are equal. The variances are used to test the quality of more than two populations. The effects of stress among registered nurses are categorized according to physical health, mental health and emotional health. The study was conducted among registered nurses of SLU-Hospital of the Sacred Heart regardless of gender, and those who are twenty five years of age and above, assigned at the operating room, emergency and surgical ward. The nurse respondents are also categorized according to their number of years in service After the researchers collected, collated, tabulated and organized the data, results were analyzed. Descriptive statistics were used to describe and summarize the data that were gathered. Through it, the researchers were able to identify the significant differences between variables of the study. In table one (1), weighted mean and ranking were used, weighted mean measures the average of the responses. Looking at the table, in category one (1) effects of stress among nurses in their physical health, question number one (1) increase in overall sickness absence has the highest mean score of 3.1, while question number three (3) I do not want to go to work early garnered the least mean score of 2.4, meaning most of the nurses assigned at the operating room, emergency ward and surgical ward when under physical stress opt to absent from work by filing a sick leave. And only few nurses do not want to report to work early when under stress. Second category which is the effect of stress in the mental health of nurses, question number eight (8) conflicts arise with colleagues, garnered the highest mean score which is 2.8 while question number six (6) I have ethical problems with my job, garnered the lowest mean of 2.1, while questions 11, 13, 14,15,16,17 and 19 (please refer to table 3) are all ranked as second question with the highest mean score of 2.6 and 2.7 respectively. The highest result means that nurses when under stress have this tendency to create tension at work and lots of misunderstandings happen between and among them, which sometimes become evident when they are doing their job then suddenly commit mistakes. Then it is good that the lowest mean score is number six, having ethical problems with job, meaning nurses despite stressors and other problems, they still respect each other and remain professional when dealing with it. The third and last category which is effect of stress to nurses in their emotional health, question number twenty five (25) I feel overloaded at work has the highest mean score which is 2.7, while question numbers twenty seven (27) my relationship with co-workers are poor and twenty eight (28) poor relationship with patients, are the two with the least mean score of 2.2 respectively. The meaning of the highest result which is I feel overloaded at work goes to show that nurses becomes work engine at the hospital, this could be due to under staffing or un equal division of work load. While it is a good remark that number 27 and 28 garnered the lowest mean score, because poor relationship with co-workers as well as with patients does not bring out the best in a nurse and in nursing service. In an article entitled â€Å"Nurses’ workplace stressors and coping strategies†, it defined stress as the physical and emotional outcomes that occur when there is disparity between the demands of the job and the amount of control the individual has in meeting those demands. Table two (2) is the coping mechanisms used by nurses when under stress in the workplace. Weighted mean and ranking are the statistical treatment used to determine the results. Coping mechanism number five (5) I say no to overtime if I do not feel happy to do it garnered the highest mean score of 3.4, while coping mechanisms numbers two (2) I exercise regularly and number thirteen (13) I allow myself to feel angry and express this in a safe way have the least mean score of 2.4, meaning nurses are but human beings, they feel and they learn to say no when it comes to overtime because of exhaustion. They reach the point when they are totally burn-out. In an article entitled â€Å"Stress Management†, it says that these stressors can lead to the classic â€Å"burn-out† syndrome. Instead of persisting until this happens, nurses can learn more effective coping strategies, become self-aware, acknowledge their own limitations, and acquire emotion-fcused and problem-solving skills (Selye, 1956). While that is the highest result, we come to the lowest which are numbers two and thirteen. Exercising regularly got a low mean score most probably because nurses when they get home from work they are already tired and there is no more time for them to do some exercising. While the latter expressing anger the safe way, it got also a low score most probably because it was not clear to the respondents what was meant by safe way to express anger. Safe way can be counting from one to one hundred, inhaling and exhaling until the body feels calm. Or maybe drinking or eating your favorite dish, food can become an outlet of anger; these are few ways of safe outlet for anger.

Trans Atlantic Slave Trade History History Essay

Trans Atlantic Slave Trade History History Essay The Royal African Company of London was initiated by King Charles II in his ambition to expand the slave trade of England. King Charles II and the duke of York invested their own funds into the company to establish it. Initially it was known as the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa company and was only involved in gold trading and was created by the Stuart family and London merchants once the former retook the English throne in the English Restoration of 1660.The company was granted a monopoly over the English slave trade by a charter issued in 1660 and was given the mandate to capture any English rival ship transporting slaves. The company later collapsed since it could not meet the due huge demands of slaves in England among other issues (Miers 45). England first got involved in slave trade in the 16th century; a move pioneered by John Hawkins an English man whose business was to deport Africans from the west coast of Africa to the West Indies (Walter 72). At first, trading directly with other European countries was common in Virginia, but the Navigation Act of 1660 brought such relations to an end and only English-owned ships could enter colonial ports. It was at this time that the Royal African Company was formed to supply Virginia planters with labor since England had realized there was a lot of wealth in the trade. The Royal African Company traded mainly for gold and slaves and the majority of whom were sent to English colonies in the Americas. Its headquarters was Cape Coast Castle, modern-day Ghana; it also maintained many forts and factories in other locations such as Sierra Leone, the Slave Coast, the River Gambia, and additional areas on the Gold Coast Weeden 63). The Royal African Company lost its monopoly in 1698, although it continued to engage in the slave trade until 1731. It was replaced by the Company of Merchants Trading to Africa in 1752. In the 1680s it was transporting about 5,000 slaves per year. Many were branded with the letters DY, after its chief, the Duke of York, who succeeded his brother on the throne in 1685, becoming James II (Blackburn 212). Other slaves were branded with the companys initials, RAC, on their chests and its profits made a major contribution to the increase in the financial power of those who controlled London The British greatly benefited from this lucrative enterprise and approximately 1.5 million ,people were enslaved by the them, London was the biggest trading centre because of its transport links provided by river Thames and the London docks (Alpers, Campbell Salman 256). Britain as a country enormously benefited from the trade since slaves were exchanged for cutlery and, military supplies, which they would then exchange in West Indies to get raw materials for their industries and the products sold at huge profits. According to Bryan (106), There can be little doubt that such a system of trade substantially boosted the development of Britains commerce and manufacturing. However, there were different lines of slave trade such as the Pacific and the Atlantic; England was mostly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. The slave trade was also known as the Trans-Atlantic slave trade; it was the biggest and it mainly dealt with Africans. It lasted from the 16th century to the 19th when slave trade was abolished (Carlos 330). The trade involved many countries like the Portuguese, Brazilians, the British, the French, the Spanish, the Dutch, and the North Americans. The slaves were mostly from west and central Africa who were captured during trade at the coast while others were kidnapped from their homes or raided at their homes. They were sold to North and South American merchants to work in their sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, and rice plantations while others worked in the gold mines and silver mines (Drescher 77). Curlin (169) notes that more than 12 million Africans were enslaved under this trade which is referred to as maafa by Africans (literally meant great disaster), and the trade involved four continents, four centuries and millions of people. The first documented arrival of Africans to Virginia the first place where slaves were deported was in 1619, when a Dutch trading vessel docked in Hampton. There were 20 Africans who were traded to the English as much-needed workers to cultivate tobacco, the new cash crop of Virginia (Engerman 79). The institution of slavery slowly crept into Virginia legislation and by 1660 it was fully established in Virginia, since tobacco was extremely labor-intensive, and more and more workers were needed and also the sale of Africans to Virginia planters promised to be a profitable endeavor which really flourished (Brown 51). Nevertheless, Kwaku (4) states that slavery can be traced back to Africa itself, where Africans practiced slavery and was a part of their traditions. Africans sold slaves to Arabs before the arrival of the European who took the trade to a higher level. The Atlantic trade happened in two systems: the first and the second Atlantic systems. The first system involved sale of slaves to South America colonies of the Portuguese and the Spanish empires. It only accounted for a small percentage of the Atlantic trade about 3%. Later, Portugal was attacked by the Dutch and the British therefore weakening the trade (Martin 98). The second system involved enslavement of Africans to work in the Caribbean colonies of Brazil and North America. The slave trade was triangular; the starting point was Europe goods were transported from Europe to Africa they were given to African leaders, kings and merchants in exchange of slaves, this goods included guns, medicine, ammunition and other factory manufactu red goods. The slaves were then transported to America through the Atlantic and the final part was returning of goods from America to Europe for manufacturing these goods were sugar, tobacco ,coffee, rum and moll assess. However Brazil the main importer of slaves then manufactured the goods in South America and traded directly with the Africans (Maugham 56). The trade was encouraged by many reasons but shortage of labor was the main one. This was due to discovery of the new world hence there was a lot of cheap land available and the owners definitely wanted workers because the amount of labor was too much as they practiced intensive planting, harvesting and processing (Eltis 98). The trade also developed because of the willingness of Africans to sell fellow Africans for goods from Europe. Those convicted also for wrong doing in Africa were sold to slavery as punishment since there were no prisons. Inikori (45) argues that warfare in Africa was also a major contributor of the slave trade, there were many wars taking place at that time, for example the Congo civil war Oyo and Asante empires crisis. Patterson (10) and Clarke (75) note that although Africans practiced slavery themselves, it was very different from that of the new world. Whereas in Africa slaves children were not enslaved, in America they were enslaved at birth. In Africa they were treated well and in some communities they were considered as adopted and had the permission to marry, in contrary to America where they were not allowed to marry, they were ruthlessly bitten and even branded to show ownership although they were not used for sacrifices like it happened in Africa. Countries involved actively or passively in the trade were: Senegal Denanke Kingdom, Kingdom of Fouta, Jolof Empire, and Kingdom of Khasso, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone Ghana, Asante Confederacy and Mankessim of Nigeria, Benin Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Republic of Congo (Cheeves 102). About 1.2 2.4 million Africans died during the middle passage and others died soon after their arrival. The number of people who died during the capture and kidnapping of the Africans is countless but it remained higher than those actually enslaved. Most of the slaves sold were prisoners from African conflicts which the European fueled to their advantage, this trade led to the led to the destruction of individuals and cultures (Cooper, Holt Scott 120; David 84). The second part of the slave trade triangle was the most important is known as the middle passage of African people from Africa to the new world (Reynold 85). Ships departed to Africa with merchandise to trade in Africa for slaves, business took place at the coast since the Europeans feared to get into the interior because of tropical diseases. Voyages were organized by companies or groups of merchants and not individuals because they considered it as a major investment opportunity. Millions of Africans were imprisoned, enslaved, and removed from their communities, 15% of those captured died at sea during transportation that is about 2 million, and those that died as a result of slavery in America were more than 4 million African deaths (Roberts 92; Robin Law, British Academy, Royal African Company 106). In the eighteenth century about 6 million slaves were enslaved and Britain accounted for 2.5millon of them being the largest importer then. The duration of the transatlantic voyage varied depending on the weather many took six months; although as centuries went by the more the importers took less time because they were getting experienced and a voyage would even take six weeks (Williams 56; Cateau Harrington 96). Slave ships usually would have several hundreds of slaves and about thirty crew members. Men were chained together in pairs right leg to the next mans left leg in order to save space, while women and children had some little space to themselves. The slaves in transit were fed once a day on beans, corn, yams, rice or palm oil. Some slave holders would let their captives move around the ship daytime but most did not, they tied them throughout the grueling journey (Willis Miers 480). Disease and starvation were the main causes of death and amoebic dysentery and scurvy caused the majority of deaths. There were also disease out breaks like, smallpox, syphilis, measles, and other diseases spread rapidly in the in the squeezed compartments. The longer the voyage took the more slaves would die due to the harsh conditions, the quality and freshness of food disappeared every passing day. Another cause of death was depression because of the loss because of the loss of freedom, family, security , and their own humanity (Zuberi 156; Fage 198). Some slaves would take courage and resist their oppressors most of them refused to eat and this would make them sick and eventually die and hence a loss to the holder. Others would commit suicide by throwing themselves overboard, as well as a variety of many other opportunistic means. Over the centuries very many Africans committed suicide, which they preferred since they believe they would meet with their families in the afterlife. A former slave was quoted saying When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, which we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames (Indrani 321). Both suicide and self-starving were prevented as much as possible by slaver holders hence they were even torture so that they would feed but some still managed to starve themselves. It was not just the slaves who suffered, the sailors themselves experienced terrible conditions and often were employed only throu gh coercion. Sailors knew and hated the slave trade, so at port towns, recruiters and tavern owners would get sailors drunk, and then offer to relieve their debt if they signed contracts with slave ships. If they did not, they would be imprisoned, sailors in prison had a hard time getting jobs outside of the slave ship industry, since most other maritime industries would not hire jail-birds, so they were forced to go to the slave ships anyway (Hogg 73; Michlethwait Wooldridge 32). This kind of treatment made many Africans depressed and left them in a severe psychological shock. This was compounded by a common fear among the Africans that they had been taken by the Europeans to be eaten, to be made into oil or gunpowder, or that their blood was to be used to dye the red flags of Spanish ships while it was their skills as agricultural laborers and their adaptability to tropical climates that were sorely needed in the agricultural economy of the European colonies. Once the slaves arrived in America or other destinations they were taken to the plantations by their specific owners while others would be sold, as property, even worse there were advertisements for slaves on sale. It was not only merchants and ship captains who were involved in this trade, but also artisans and businesspeople were involved. These included blacksmiths, bakers, goldsmiths, hatters, shoemakers, tailors and tobacconists. Doctors, judges, and midwives were also among the slave sellers. Even governors owned slaves as demonstrated by an advertisement listing a Mulatto Boy for sale from the estate of a deceased governor Collins 25). In Britain, the first private slave trader was, John Hawkins, who began the trade in 1562, he left England with 100 men and 3 ships, his first point was Sierra Leone where he captured 300 slaves and sold them in Hispaniola, on his return his ship was full of goods like such as hides, ginger and sugar the queen gained interest in him and the two became business partners, the royal family slowly got into the slave trade and on the third voyage Hawkins took along Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh who also developed to be great slave traders. The Duke of York also through the queen joined the trade and he used to get his initials, DY, branded onto the left buttock or breast of each of the 3000 slaves who were his and he sold them to the Caribbeans. Business was booming and in the 17th and18th century slaves population in the British Caribbean was approximately 428,000 out of a population of 500,000 (Kitson 87). Due to the growth of slave trade, the royal family decided to create a company that would control slave trade and completely abolish the private slave traders; for this reason the Royal African Company was established. The Company transported an average of 5000 slaves per year, between 1680 and1686, and received annual grants from parliament of about  £90,000. King Charles II was a major a shareholder, and hence maintained the Royal family involvement in slavery. The Royal African Company had agents in Virginia to whom slaves were delivered, they were given a seven-percent commission on sales, some of the major players in trade were John Page, Colonel Nathaniel Bacon and William Sherwood were all prominent Virginians who served as factors, agents or representatives for the Company (Miers Klein 102; Spooner 87). Private traders were not pleased with this and pardoned the court to be allowed to continue with the trade of human cattle, however in 1698 parliament approved private traders to participate in the slave trade as long as they paid a 10% duty on English goods exported to Africa. Business went bad for the company, since private traders overtook it. Many factors led to the fall of the company some of them were: the Company was not achieving a profit and had to borrow money to pay dividends, the planters were always complaining that the company was not able to supply enough slaves and the demand was overwhelming, hence they argued that the monopoly be abolished so that more slaves could be imported. Eventually, the Company, which was always heavily patronized by the Stuart monarchs, fell out of favor when James II was deposed and William and Mary came to the throne this led to the abolishment of the company because it was no longer valid. The company though continued slave trade at small scale levels until 1731; it abandoned the trade and started trafficking of ivory and gold dust. Charles Hayes (1678-1760), mathematician and chronologist was sub-governor of Royal African Company till 1752 when it was dissolved. Its successor was the African Company of Merchants (Solow Engerman 214). Liverpools Bristol and London benefited greatly from this trade, it was booming and in the 17th century Liverpools first slave ship transported 220 slaves to Barbados and sold them for  £4,239, this was less than  £20 per slave. In addition, Liverpool had 8 major slave traders who together could transport 25,820 that worked out around 50-550 per ship. However, England signed the Treaty of Utrecht with Spain in 1733, which granted England monopoly of the Spanish slave trade for 30 years as England promised at least 144,000 slaves at the rate of 4,800 slaves per year. In 1772 Lord Mansfield came to proclaim it illegal to remove any person forcibly from England, though this did not make any big change because many of the major politicians were deeply involved with slavery. For example, Richard Pennant who was Liverpools Member of Parliament from 1777 to 1790, owned 8,000 acres of sugar plantations and over 600 slaves in Jamaica. Similarly, three out of 41 councilors in Liverpool wer e slave ship owners or major investors in the slave trade and during the years of 1787 and 1807, all 20 mayors who held office in Liverpool financed or owned slave ships. The slave trade was abolished in 1808 over 100 years after the British Empire became involved in slave trading, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was abolished within the Empire and also in the United States. However it was not until 1827 that Britain declared the slave trade illegal, and in 1833 slavery was abolished throughout Europe, the Emancipation Act went through British parliament. It still took another 11 years until 1838 before slavery was fully abolished within the British Empire. The new system however gave some  £20,000, to the planters as compensation although nothing was awarded to any former slaves. The system even made things worse for the former slaves due to the high taxes on smallholdings, high rates for licenses on small traders and contracts to shackle the laborers to the large plantations; hence they were forced to continue working in arduous conditions on the plantations. In 1844 there was labor shortage and this led to the introduction of indentured labor from another of Britains colonies, India. The Indian laborers made conditions worse for former slaves as they undermined any attempts to get better working and living conditions through strikes. By 1917, 145,000 Indians had been transported to Trinidad and 238,000 to Guyana. Jamaica was also affected with around 39,000 immigrants. The only island not affected was Barbados. It evident that the slave trade led to the growth of the populations of Europe and America while those of Africa remained stagnant. Revenues from slavery were used to build Europe and Americas economies and especially the industrial revolution was funded by the profits from agricultural activities which were done by the slaves. Scholars have argued that Britains industrial development is owed to slavery and that Britain thrives on slavery wealth. Some also have claimed that by the time it was completely abolished its importance was long gone and its abolishment was an advantage for Britain, some though think differently and argue that slavery was useful to the end. In 1787, the first anti slavery movement was formed The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. The first countries to petition against slavery were Cuba and Jamaica, United States followed suit and later on Britain, Portugal and in some other parts of Europe. The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) was the leading movement in Britain that called for abolition of slavery, the movement was joined by many and began to protest against the trade, but they were opposed by the owners of the colonial holdings. Denmark was the first country to ban slave trade through a parliamentary legislation in 1792, which took effect in 1803. In 1807, Britain banned the trade but not slavery itself, although the slave trade had become illegal, slavery remained a reality in British colonies. Wilberforce himself was convinced that the institution of slavery should be entirely abolished, but he also knew there was little political will to do so by the politicians. The Emancipation Bill was taken to parliament, it was supposed to officially abolish slave trade in Britain if passed, and it gathered support and received its final commons reading on 26 July 1833. Slavery was to be abolished planters would be well compensated; slaves on plantations were required to remain for a further six years. Those who petitioned for abolition argued that slavery made Africans to go into constant wars so that they could capture prisoners who would be sold as slaves to meet the ever growing demand for slaves. People avoided details of the middle passage issue because it would have caused great animosity and only talked about the massive deaths it caused and hence the need to an end of slavery. They also argued that despite the conditions at sea the whole ordeal of slave trade was grueling and had to stop immediately. The trade also led to the birth of the black social identifies and European superiority, which led to the slow development of the African race. They however agreed that the trade was important for the stability of the economy which was obviously not important than human rights. The debate over slavery went on for decades before abolition was finalized. Davies (86) observes that The Royal Navy, which then controlled the worlds seas, moved to stop other nations from filling Britains place in the slave trade and declared that slaving was equal to piracy and was punishable by death. They forced other nations to quit the trade to so as to protect their economy and also make their colonies uncompetitive. Other European countries were left with no option but to stop and when that happened the British navy took its supremacy to the west coast so as to secure the sea and they were stationed there for the next 50 years. Action was taken for African leaders who refused to stop slave trade activities. Antislavery treaties were signed all over Africa by 50 leaders (Boddy-Evans 10; Carlos Kruse 291). In conclusion Englands involvement in the slave trade as viewed from the National Gallery in London, slave trade was a respected occupation then and many of the London merchants who were taking almost 3/4 of the sugar imported from the West Indies lived in South London in Blackheath. It can be said Europe and America are built on funds made through the sale of Africans ancestors because they labored and toiled on the plantations to many of the banks in this countries today and so are the their families. Slavery is not over but entrenched at the heart of Londons wealth. In 1998, UNESCO designated August 23 as International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition. Since that occurrence, a number of events surrounding the recognition of the effect of slavery on both the enslaved and enslavers have come to pass. At the World Conference against Racism, South Africa, African nations demanded a clear apology for slavery from the former slave-trading countries. Some nati ons were willing to do so but some refused such as the United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United States. The countries feared that they would be asked to pay compensation. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, also remain an open. On November 27, 2006, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a partial apology for Britains role in the African slavery trade. However, African rights activists denounced it as empty rhetoric and it did not address the issue like it should. The apology was just mere talk and they say he should have not even said it. On August 24, 2007, Ken Livingstone (then Mayor of London) apologized publicly for Londons role in the slave trade. You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery, he said pointing towards the financial district, before breaking down in tears. He said it was still haunted by the memories of sla very. Jesse Jackson praised Mayor Livingstone, and added that reparations should be made. On January 30, 2006, Jacques Chirac (the then French President) said that 10 May would henceforth be a national day of remembrance for the victims of slavery in France, and when marking the day in 2001 when France passed a law recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity. On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. The language included a reference to the fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and segregation (Howard 21).

The multiple emulsions

The multiple emulsions Introduction: Seifriz started his pioneering work about multiple emulsions since 1925, which is regarded as the fundamental knowledge in the later research. Multiple emulsions are complicated systems which are considered as emulsions of emulsions (Garti, 1996).In the outer continues phase, the droplets of the dispersed phase named as globules which contain even smaller dispersed droplets ,the globules are separated from each other in external continues phase by a layer of oil phase film. In the inner phase, the droplets are departed from each other by oil phase (Benichou et al. 2006). It is widely believed that there exist two primary types of multiple emulsions, one is water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsions that an w/o emulsion is dispersed in another aqueous phase (W2) and the other is oil-in-water-in-oil (O1/W/O2) emulsions that an o/w emulsion is dispersed in another oil phase(O2). In the previous study, water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) multiple emulsions have accounted for a vital role in t he research of multiple emulsions , because the applications of W1/O/W2 multiple emulsions plays an important role in the food industry and it is also easier for us to select various of hydrophilic emulsifiers which are safe to health as stabilizers in preparation of multiple emulsions (Pays et al., 2002). As shown in Fig. 1, take water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) double emulsions as an example, which are composed of three distinct phases : an internal aqueous phase (W1), which containing many aqueous soluble ingredients. Various internal aqueous droplets are encapsulated in an oil phase (O), which is included in external aqueous phase (W2) (Garti, 1996). Applications of multiple emulsions It is widely believed that the potential applications so numerous that the research in such promising area can bring beneficial effects, especially in products areas ,such as drug-delivery systems, cosmetics, and foods . Water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsions allow the encapsulation of active ingredients which have the ability to be soluble in the internal aqueous phase, thus it is possible to hide smell of some matter; remove toxic substance; or select appropriate conditions to realize controlled release of the active ingredients under certain process of emulsification. (Kanouni et al. 2002) On the basic of slow and sustained release of active ingredients from an internal reservoir into the external aqueous phase, the main function of double emulsions is regarded as an internal reservoir to entrap ingredients whatever you choose into the inner confined space, in order to protect against oxidation, light and enzymatic degradation. As a result, sensitive and active molecules can be protected from the external phase by the function of internal reservoir. In addition, because of the phenomenon of release of water or ingredients which can be observed in the experiments, the active ingredients will exist partly in the internal aqueous phase, partly in the oil phase and occasionally in the external phase(Benichou et al. 2004) .In the food industry, double emulsions provide some advantages because of their capability to encapsulate some water-soluble substances, such as flavours or active ingredients which are then slowly released from the internal compartments. Additionally, we should select food-grade additives which is soluble in the internal aqueous phase because the consumer products in food industry will be applied in our daily lives. Furthermore, as the development of needs in food quality, the production of low calorie and reduced fat products come into food market. (Muschiolik, 2007; Van der Graaf et al., 2005). In agrochemical industry, it has become incr easingly difficult for scientists to produce products, such as pesticides which are effectively and simultaneously friendly to the environment. According to ElShafei et al. (2009), the idea of multiple emulsions has been successfully applied to the agriculture products and the multiple emulsions are relatively stable even on storage at room temperature and 4 ?for 30 days. As government increasingly pay attention to the safe and environmentally friendly products, the research in this orientation has draw publics attention. Till now, no pharmaceutical multiple emulsions have been brought to the market, because potential emulsifiers used in multiple emulsions are only available in cosmetic grade but not be applied in pharmaceutical grade. (Schmidts et al., 2009 ) In cosmetic area, the possibility of combining incompatible substances in products in order to offer more favorable functions. (Vasiljevic et al., 2005) multiple emulsions also have the potential to change the commonly oily feel of hand-cream to aqueous texture. The advance of products of cosmetics has brought out more space to develop in order to get more profits. (Kanouni et al., 2002) Methods of preparation: Scientists have done some research in multiple emulsions as the applications provide us more convenience and bring better consumer products in many areas. Because double emulsions have more complex structure and are even more thermodynamically unstable than single emulsions, they prone to be difficult to prepare, especially on an industrial scale. The difficulties of preparation of multiple emulsions have draw scientists attention, so many research have been pour into this area. In general, there exist single -step and two -step emulsification methods to prepare multiple emulsions (Allouche et al., 2003). Due to a multiple emulsion is considered as a mesophase between O/W and W/O emulsion, the one-step method of preparation means a combination of the two different types of emulsions and surfactant phase, which is very difficult to control. So, such method will not be chosen in the preparation (Matsumoto, 1987; Mulley and marland, 1980). On the basic of previous study, the two-step emulsification process is considered as the most common and better controlled method. First of all, W1/O emulsions are much easier to prepare and it is also easy to control various characteristics in these emulsions as the parameters in them are relatively limited . Secondly, in the second step, it is widely believed that the complex structure and variable quantities result in relatively difficult to control or regulate. Many methods have been commonly used to improve the preparation of multiple emulsions, adding suitable emulsifiers is regarded as one of the most significant one. In general, two kinds of emulsifiers are introduced to add in the preparation of multiple emulsions as the difference of their functions. Because of the different affinity of the emulsifiers, hydrophobic emulsifier Emulsifier I which is used in the oil phase and hydrophilic emulsifier Emulsifier II which is used in the external aqueous phase (Garti, 1996). The hydrophobic emulsifier is designed to stabilize the interface of the W1/O internal emulsion and the hydrophilic emulsifier acts as stabilizer at the external interface of W1/O/W2 emulsion. The main function of emulsifiers is enhancing the stability of multiple emulsions in the preparation and even the long-time storage. The process of two-step preparation is shown in Fig.2. In the first step, the primary W/O emulsion is prepared under high-shear conditions (homogenization) to obtain small droplets, whereas the second step is carried out with less shear in order to avoid rupturing the internal droplets because the second step i s much difficult to control than the first step (van der Graaf et al., 2004). On the basic of Kanouni et al., (2002)s earlier work, in the first step, they usually use an Ultra-Turrax mixer with a relatively high speed to prepare a W1/O emulsion which is a combination of internal aqueous phase and an appropriate oil phase with suitable low HLB emulsifier; in the second step, the W1/O/W2 multiple emulsions will be produced by adding proper high HLB emulsifiers using Ultra-Turrax mixer or mechanical agitator with relatively smaller rotation speed. In the previous study, stirring apparatuses, rotor-stator systems and high pressure homogenizers are considered as the most commonly and conventional emulsification devices (Schubert and Armbruster, 1992).As shown in table 1. the functions and disadvantages has been tabulated. There are several drawbacks in such existing methods of production ( Williams et al.,1998). First of all, it is not easy for us to control the droplet size and droplet size distribution of the final multiple emulsions products. Secondly, it is difficult to scale up because different classes of the products are generated per batch on the same manufacture conditions, which contribute to one of the main factors why such products can not be applied in the industry. Moreover,van der Graaf et al. (2005) illustrate that conventional methods are not feasible in preparation of double emulsions, because high-shear stresses can result in rupture of the internal emulsions which should be avoided in the secondary emulsification (van der Graaf et al., 2005) Different kinds of emulsification devices can generate various multiple emulsions with different conditions, such as droplet size, encapsulation efficiency, release rate, and so on. What has interested the scientists most recently is researching novel approaches to improve the emulsification equipment in order to generate more stable and ideal multiple emulsions. Much attention has been put in the improvement of the second step by using various pieces of equipment and novel method. Nakashima et al. (1991) points out that membrane emulsification is widely accepted as one of the new method for the production of emulsions recently( Nakashima et al., 1991). This technique is increasingly attracted because of its low energy consumption, the better control of droplet size and droplet size distribution and especially the mildness of the process, especially suitable to be used in the second step to prevent rupture of the double emulsion droplets (van der Graaf et al., 2005). Joscelyne and Tragardh (1998) demonstrate that it is favourable to prepare small droplets when the conditions are higher concentrations of emulsifiers, high wall shear stress through a membrane with small pore size. As shown in Fig.3. because of the mild conditions in the process of membrane emulsification, it is easier to produce small size droplets and protect the multiple emulsions from membrane rupture, especially useful in the second step of emulsification. The system chosen ceramic membranes of different average pore size to prepare relative small droplets in multiple emulsions because such kinds of emulsions more stable. Membrane technology can be applied to the many productions, such as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions t, UHT products and so on (Joscelyne and Tragardh 1998) .However, low flux of the dispersed phase is the main and visible drawback of membrane emulsification (Charcosset et al., 2004),which is caused by the properties of membranes with a low hydraulic . In general, two methods are commonly introduced in membrane emulsification: cross-flow membrane emulsification and pre-mix membrane emulsification (Suzuki et al., 1998). Take pre-mix membrane emulsification as an example, as shown in Fig.4. the most significant advantages of such method is it can provide high flux, which can improve the membrane emulsification process. Various novel methods have been reported to improve the disadvantage of membrane emulsification. (Gijsbertsen-Abrahamse et al., 2004) for example, with the advance in nano- and micro engineering, it is possible to produce membranes with a low hydraulic resistance named microsieves. (Van Rijn et al., 2005) Microsieves, inorganic membranes, which can offer a very thin selective layer, high controlled pore size and shape, and smooth surfaces. As shown in Fig.5., SEM images of pore morphology of a silicon nitride microsieve surface. Microsieve membranes contribute to flux decline in crossflow filtration of bovine serum albumin (BSA) solutions. (Giron`es et al.,2006) According to Shnji Sugiura et al., (2003), monodispersed multiple emulsions which are good at providing relatively stable conditions are regularly applied in industries and basic studies, on the basic of easier observation, monodispersed emulsions are regarded as an effective approach in determining the resistance to coalescence of an emulsion, and in observing how the active matter go through the oil film by diffusion. (Sugiura et al., 2003) Furthermore, a microfabricated channel array has been pointed out as a promising method for preparing monodisperse emulsion droplets (Kawakatsu et al., 1997). This type of emulsification technique is called microchannel (MC) emulsification, which is regarded as a novel method for preparing monodisperse emulsions. Owning to the advantages of this technique, it is a promising technique to improve the stability of multiple emulsions. (Kawakatsu et al., 2001; Sugiura et al., 2001 ). Nakagawa et al.(2004) suggest that monodisperse surfactant-free mic rocapsules can be produced by MC emulsification using gelatin. Of course, this technique need further study to improve its low production rate. Improvements in stability of multiple emulsions In practice, significant problems may arise, not only the thermodynamic instability of emulsions, but also many destabilization phenomenon, such as flocculation, coalescence and creaming, have contribute to the unstable emulsions (Vasiljevic et al., 2005). In order to protect the emulsions from the formation of flocculation or coalescence, two methods have been introduced to protect the droplets from each other, one is increasing viscosity of the external phase, the other is energy barrier. The DLVO theory is commonly applied to explain colloidal stability. when the distance between two colloid particles is increasing from small to large, the resulting potential is rage from negative to positive because the existence of attraction potential and repulsion potential ( Friberg, 1997). Various factors may have an effect on the stability of multiple emulsions, including the method of preparation, the oil type, type and concentration of the emulsifier and so on (Vasiljevic et ,al. 2005). On the basic of fundamentally experimental data, we choose the relatively suitable and effective conditions to prepare multiple emulsions. Many research have been put into how to improve the stability of multiple emulsions because thermodynamically unstable multiple emulsions not only exist in the process of preparation ,but also occur during storage or on exposure to environmental stresses such as mechanical forces, thermal processing, freezing or dehydration. On the basic of developed techniques, we can observe or measure the leakage of the inner aqueous phase(W1) in the outer phase and destabilization properties of the emulsions. There are four mechanisms explaining the instability of W1/O/W2 multiple emulsions: (1) the instability comes from the inner aqueous droplets because of coalescence; (2) the instability comes from the oil droplets because of coalescence; (3) rupture of the oil film (4) transport of water and ingredients through the oil layer (Appelqvist et al., 2007,; Florence and Whithill,1981; der Graaf et al., 2005). In the real conditions, there may exist more than one mechanism in the multiple emulsions, different results to different situations. The determining of primary mechanisms exist in certain multiple emulsions should dependent on the experimental data and convincing analysis. What should we do is research more reasonable methods to solve the problem of thermodynamically unstablity in multiple emulsions. Three kinds of approach aiming at improving stabilization and slow solute release have been list as follows (Davis et al., 1985) : (1) stabilization of the inner W1/O emulsion, for example, the addition of various emulsifier combinations (Apenten and Zhu, 1996; Shima et al., 2004; Su et al., 2006); (2) stabilization of oil phase by choosing suitable oil type and the addition of proper carriers, complexants and viscosity builders, for instance, the solidification of the oil phase and the modification of the solubility and polarity of the oil phase to make it less water soluble (Tedajo et al., 2001); (3) stabilization of the external aqueous phase, such as increasing the viscosity of the outer aqueous phase (-zer, et al., 2000). Although many strategies have been categorized above, a majority of them are not suitable to apply in food industry because they are not easily scaled up in industry or they include not food- grade ingredients entrapped in multiple emulsions, which may make a bad influence on human health. So, there exists numerous space for us to research in the methods of improving the stability of multiple emulsions. (ORegan and Mulvihill, 2009) In general, many factors contribute to the improvement of stability of multiple emulsions as some research have deeply determined the main causes of thermal unstable phenomenon and flocculation, coalescence and creaming phenomenon. The nature and internal properties of surfactants or emulsifiers play a vital role in solving problem. Stability of multiple (Opawale, et al., 1998) emulsions has been shown to be dependent on emulsifier interfacial film strength, ionic strength, various additives, and concentration. According to Vasiljevic et al. (2005), when the concentration of emulsifier in oil phase is higher, the multiple emulsions will have lower droplet size, higher viscosity and elastic characteristics. Moreover, changing the concentration of surfactants, results in the difference of the amount of retinol released from silica particles. In addition, different polymers which are added into the aqueous phase, the encapsulation efficiency of retinol was also changed (Hwang et al., 2005). The process of multiple emulsion formation and various destabilization processes can be determined by video microscopy (Ficheux et al., 1998). A unique dimpled structure is a signal to show the deformation of the multiple droplets and coalescence of the internal dispersed phase by coverslip pressure. If the multiple emulsions po ssess relatively high stability, then such structure come out for long-time observed in the presence of adequate concentrations of surfactants and additives. So, Formation of the dimple structure is linked with interfacial film strength and long-term multiple emulsion stability (Jiao et al., 2002). The long-term stability of the double emulsion requires a balance between the Laplace and osmotic pressures among droplets in W1, because a stable W1/O emulsion is a fundamental and significant step in order to prepare a stable W1/O/W2 double emulsion. Garti (1996) illustrate the concept of weighted hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) is important because the value is linked with the droplet size, the number of W1 dispersed in inner phase and the stability of the W/O/W multiple emulsions. Such properties are so significant in preparing relatively stable multiple emulsions that the weighted HLB value is considered as a potential reference to select the optimal type of emulsifiers in forming multiple emulsions. In the first step of preparation, HLB(I) stands for the HLB value of the hydrophobic emulsifier, CI means the weight percentage of the hydrophobic emulsifier in the fundamental W1/O emulsion, In the second step of preparation, HLB(II) stands for the HLB value of the hydrophilic emulsifier, and CII means the weight percentage of the hydrophilic emulsifier in the W1/O/W2 multiple emulsion It was observed that using a combination of an amphoteric high HLB surfactant and an anionic surfactant can prepare a stable system(Kanouni et al., 2002). The inner phase is demonstrated to be better stabilized by minimizing the size of droplets and forming microemulsion droplets or microsphere particles, or applying more potential surfactants in order to seal the active ingredients in the interface (ORegan and Mulvihill, 2009). Choosing of optimal surfactants has made a positive effect on controlling particle size in multiple emulsions. Sepideh Khoee and Morteza Yaghoobian (2008) propose that the mean diameters of nanocapsules containing penicillin-G are linked with the properties of surfactants. that is to say, the different types or content of surfactant used in formation of multiple emulsions can result in different droplets size. N. Heldt et al. (2000) point put that changing the ratio of lecithin/SXS make an effect on the average size of the corresponding vesicles in the oil-wa ter emulsion. In addition, egg lecithin considered as hydrophobic substance, sodium xylenesulfonate (SXS) acts as the hydrophilic matter. As the ratio goes up, the average vesicle size increases correspondingly. Stability can be improved by offering suitable stabilizer because the surfactants act as film former and barrier to the release at internal interface(Khoee and Yaghoobian, 2008). Two charged biopolymers, whey protein isolate (WPI) and enzymatic modified pectins, interacted in aqueous solution to form a charge-charge complex which acts as a hydrophilic polymeric steric stabilizer improving the multiple emulsion stability .Regulating the conditions to get the result of most relatively stable condition. For example, as pH can determin the size of the complex ,when pH =6, the most stable double emulsion are gained because of the smallest droplet size, the lowest creaming, highest yield, and minimized water transport(Lutz et al., 2009). Henry et al. (2009) have studied six emulsifiers in their experiments, it is shown that as the amount of emulsifier increased, the phenomenon of coalescence occurs go down. Furthermore, droplet size is dependent on both break-up and re-coalescence events in emulsification, for example, when the surfactant concentration is lower, the droplet size is prone to a result of multiple break-up events. It is shown in the results of experiments that the frequency of droplet coalescence is decreased to a minimum as the process of preparation is under an optimal surfactant concentration, which balances the formation of the smaller possible droplets and relatively stable in preparation and long time storage. On the basic of experimental results which is analyzed by equilibrium phase diagram as well as observed through polarization microscopy, Yihan Liu et al. (2009) have got the conclusion that certain type of multiple emulsions which a liquid crystal can be formed by the surfactant with water are more stable compared to counterparts with no liquid crystals exist in the surfactant but prepared in the same condition(Liu and Friberg, 2009). Garti and Aserin (1996) propose that macromolecules together with monomeric surfactants can be served as steric stabilizers to improve the stability of multiple emulsions. The synthetic polymeric surfactants are ideal interfacial barrier to improve thermodynamic stability and entrapment, which is very helpful in reducing release rate of entrapped additives,and preparing smaller double emulsions with long-time stability. Take WPI-polysaccharide conjugates as an example, compared with monomeric surfactants used only, the application of polymeric emulsifiers results in better encapsulation and controlled release of addenda (Benichou et al., 2006). Transport mechanism in multiple emulsions Various kinds of possible mechanisms have been illustrated to interpret how the substances transport through the oil phase. Oil soluble substances just transport through the oil phase by diffusion which is served as controlled mechanism. Many factors contribute to the transport rate, such as the properties of oil phase, the nature of ingredients, and the conditions of aqueous phase (Chang et al., 1987) .In the previous study, it is found that water and water soluble substance can easily migrate through the oil phase. Kita et al. (1977) demonstrate that two possible mechanism can be applied to interpret the phenomenon of transportation: (1) reverse micelle transport; (2) diffusion across a very thin lamella. Cheng et al. (2006) demonstrate that both Cl- and Ag+ can transport through a thick oil film through observing and measuring the formation of AgCl precipitate in the W1/O/W2 multiple emulsion. Ions can not transport through the oil film which is very thin (

DNA Testing and the Conviction of Criminals Essay -- Exploratory Essay

DNA Testing and the Conviction of Criminals There have been many incidents where cases have needed a solid prosecution in order to convict the defendant in a murder or rape case. This is where DNA Testing comes in to help. By taking a DNA test, a person can be found guilty or not guilty. If a person claims they have been raped there can be a sperm sample taken from the suspect in order to prove that he is guilty or not. In addition, in a murder case there can be blood taken from the suspect so they can tell of his innocence. There are several ways to determine whether a person is guilty or not by this method. Many cases have begun to use this method saying that it is foolproof. People say this is the method of the future of crime scene investigation. DNA Testing is a foolproof way to prove whether a criminal is innocent or guilty. I believe in order to be able to DNA Test I have to know what DNA is in the first place. According to the National Institute of Justice DNA is "the primary carrier of genetic information in living organisms, consists of a very long spiral structure that has been likened to a 'twisted ladder"(1997). The handrails of this ladder are made up of bases, which are nucleic acids. These nucleic acids combine to form pairs, which then creates nucleotides. These pairs create the genetic code of DNA (National Institute of Justice, 1997). The National Institute claims that these nucleic acids combine to form pairs, which then creates nucleotides. These pairs create the genetic code of DNA (1999). The four nucleic acids are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine (All About DNA, 1998). Many people cannot necessarily always rely on fingerprints. DNA evidence is the method of the future. Crimes will be sol... ... National Institute of Justice: Research in Action. (1998). The Unrealized Potential of DNA Testing. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. National Institute of Justice: Research Preview. (1997). Automated DNA Typing: Method of the Future? Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Robertson, J., Ross, A.M., & Burgoyne, L.A. (Eds.). (1990). DNA in forensic science: theory, techniques, and applications. England: Ellis Howard Limited. Stevens, M., (2002, May). Do fingerprints lie? Retrieved April 8, 2004, from http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/ ?020527 fa_ FACT What every law enforcement officer should know about DNA evidence. (1999,September). Retrieved April 18, 2004, from http://www.ncjrs.org/nij/DNAbro/evi.html Wright, R. (1999). James Watson and Francis Crick. Time Magazine. Retrieved April 6, 2004, from http://www.time.com/

Language: Origins Of Hate :: essays research papers

Language: Origins of Hate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The horrors of mass murder can be made bearable if the intended victim is made to appear an object that deserves extermination.† As the main thesis of this essay clearly and straight-forwardly sedgiest, the author plans to probe the tools of mass destruction. More particularly, Friedmann hopes to explore the annihilation of his own people, the Jews. Opposed to popular belief, the gas chambers and concentration camps played a relatively minor role in mass destruction, the Nazis used â€Å"propagandists,† they â€Å"resorted to terminology that had been utilized earlier to render Jews subhuman.† More directly, the Nazis employed language. Through language they convinced themselves and each other that â€Å"Jews are a lower species of life† thereby justifying their demise. Friedman argues that we as a society must be conscious of such verbal derangement and seize to advocate and support still remaining demeaning clichà ©s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is easy to point the finger of blame at a particular group of people residing at a particular nation, but that would be grossly incorrect and pointless. The truth of the matter is, â€Å"the Nazis resorted to terminology that had been utilized much earlier to render Jews subhuman.† Friedman brings up the name of Martin Luther, history’s character that is usually viewed as a hero. The man who posted the 95 thesis on a church door and triggered the reformation of the corrupt institution of Christianity, is describing a race o people as â€Å"a plague and a pestilence.† So the Nazis actions may have been to a higher degree, but were never original.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interestingly enough, an uncanny parallel is drawn. Germans contracted bio-chemical plats specializing in insecticides to produce Zyklon B, a potent gas that was used to kill Jewish prisoners in high numbers. Zyklon B is essentially a potent can of â€Å"Raid.† First they labeled these people â€Å"vermin,†Ã¢â‚¬Å"lice† and â€Å"bacilli,† and then appropriately â€Å"fumigated them dead.† After all â€Å"is not extermination the deserved fate of all vermin?† Ironically, the Nazis discussed these gas chambers as showers, places that sedgiest cleanliness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Friedman goes on to e..plain that from ancient times, Jew as a word has meant â€Å"praised,† and it is a name of the greatest of the twelve tribes of Israel. Never mind the people themselves for a minute, the name itself has a rich history. Today however, the same word, consisting of the same letters comprised in the same order, had taken up a different, more degrading meanings, in our vocabulary.

Parker Pen Company Essay

Background George Safford Parker founded Parker Pen Company in 1892 in Janesville, Wisconsin. It began with the production of his first fountain pen. Afterwards in 1894, Parker had its first major innovation; â€Å"the lucky curve† which consisted on reducing the leak caused in fountain pens. Parker’s first marketing approach was to produce high quality pens and make them become status symbols; Parker pens were signer’s favorite, giving the company the first or second position globally. The company obtained this successful position due to investigations and development by constantly innovating for the production of new products; for instance with the creation of Quink â€Å"quick drying ink, they produced the Parker 51; which became a bestseller and was catalogued as â€Å"the most perfect pen ever produced†. It gave the company $400 million within 30 years. By the end of 1980 the parker pens were sold in over 150 countries. In 1987 the company’s headquarters was moved to Newhaven, East Sussex, England. Then in 1993 Parker was aquired by Gillette Company, which already owned the PaperMate brand. Then in 2000 Gillette sold the company to Newell Rubbermaid, and became the largest in the world owning writing products with brand names such as, Sharpie, Parker, PaperMate, Waterman and Liquid Paper, among others. People involved George Parker the founder James R. Peterson the president and CEO of Parker Pen: Peterson has to deal with the compay’s problems, for instance instead of having over 40 publishing firms he hired one that could do the job of all. Jack Marks the head of writing instruments advertising Richard Swart the marketing vice president: Before entering Pen Parker, he worked for 3M Carlos Del Nero is Parker’s manager of global marketing planning. Business involved Pen Parker Company Gillette Company Newell Rubbermaid The U.K. subsidiary Ogilvy & Mather: Main problem Parker Pen Company faced some difficult years where they were not obtaining as much revenues as expected. Therefore the company hired a new board of marketing directors seeking the implementation of new strategies for the company. The new board, which consisted of highly qualified people, began their campaign by standardizing the products in a centralized system. This centralized system consists of abolishing plurality in the decision-making. The new system they adopted which was a world wide strategy caused the company more than $20 million in looses. Marketers didn’t investigate therefore gave the company a negative image in the market. Solution Due to the fact that the company was having some issues that was preventing the company to rise up, in 1985 the CEO was fired, moving the company’s new system to a decentralized one. The company is now able to adapt to changes, it is able to adapt to the numerous cultural barriers existing around the world, creating different marketing plans for each nation; with this, Parker regain their image in order to be able to position themselves in the market. Questions 1.The globalization process in the Parker pen company was a failure until major structural changes were implemented by James R. Peterson. Before this  change the company had misdirected its efforts to globalize its operations, many key maneuvers were ignored and this led to a close to bankruptcy status which was never in the company’s plans. Basic rules of globalization for any company state that an extensive research of the potential market has to be done, and very thoroughly. investigating the market conditions in not enough, political, legal, social and cultural aspect have to be at the top of the list to ensure that the strategies will b effective and that consumers will respond positively to the strategies implemented. This was one of the things that Parker pens failed to do, they just relied on a weak currency that allowed foreign markets to purchase American-made products, this would only last until the U.S. dollar lost its acquisitive value. Another reason why their globalization process failed was because they broke another fundamental rule, they didn’t centralize their operation and gave creative and operational autonomy to all of their branches. This caused a great loss of corporate identity and became a big problem at the most critical time since a different solution was to be presented for each one of the subsidiaries. 2.The problem that Parker pen had in its globalization process was spawned form miscalculations or lack of vision in very key areas. The first thing which globalization promoters at the Parker Company underestimated was the strength and impact of the changing market. They never considered that economic and political conditions would vary in such a way that their overseas operations would collapse in such a way. They relied on a very strong dollar which made it easy for foreign costumers to purchase their products, making this their most important income source. By overlooking this important event they drove themselves into an awkward position where they had low sales internally and over autonomous subsidiaries with a large stock and no market share at all. The other factor that they failed to consider seriously before engaging in such a risky entrepreneurship was the fact that they were living in a time when Chinese massive production was starting to flood the markets with cheaper and more convenient products, at a point where people demanded  cheaper product due to a volatile economy and political situation. Their product line depth and width were very impressive with over 400 different product, they had a solid portfolio but nothing to compete directly with the mass produced pens coming from China. They relied on their traditional products and their traditional distribution channels, in which they were losing their entire market share as well. 3.The Parker pen company is one on thousands of examples that can be quoted as being merged with a bigger company; this is an inherent condition of globalization as an economic phenomenon. Like everything else that is involved in globalization, this specific case of being acquired by a bigger company has its upside and its downside. For a company like parker that had a considerably large operation worldwide, the negative things are lesser important than the positive things. The main negative factors that this could have are for example a possible loss of the company ´s know how. By having to accommodate to another company’s rules and methods, Parker could have lost its own knowledge of the business, this is a very valuable commodity in the world today and it’s hard to maintain it when a company has to become an active part of another one. Uniting Parker pens to Gillette and Rubbermaid could also trigger a dangerous situation amongst the employees, changing cities and managers has a very large impact of the moral of the employees since they begin to lose their company identity which is another valuable commodity that companies cannot afford to lose since it is one of the main incentives that the workers have. Identity inside the company is just as important as identity outside it, if a merger like this means that there will be changes implemented in the company ´s image it could trigger a loss of costumers or even a major shift in the place that the company has in terms of â€Å"top of mind†. The benefits that this situation could bring upon a company are several and of great importance. In the case of Parker pens, a company with a very important level of recognition worldwide, joining a larger enterprise would imply broadening its market share globally, by having better, bigger and more distribution channels, allowing them to reach new costumers which is a very difficult thing to do in the world today. A big name behind a brand  means more resources, this in turn means more research for product development, more advertisement, more promotional strategies, better market research with a finer degree of segmentation and every other activity that would help a company to better it ´s self. Another very important thing is the support that Parker pens would have by being part of the Rubbermaid holding, this makes it easier to innovate and take risks, it also transmits a sense of safety to the costumer, they know that being part of the world ´s leader in writing instrument s does not come easy, so trusting Parker pens is something they can and should do.

Selecting a Topic and Brainstroming Worksheet

Associate Program Material Appendix D Selecting a Topic and Brainstorming Worksheet Complete the following and post as an attachment. |What two objects, people, subjects, or concepts are you going to |Paperback/Hardcover books vs. eBooks. | |compare and/or contrast? | | |What are the similarities between the two objects, people, |They both contain stories and information you can read. | |subjects, or concepts?List as many similarities that you can | | |think of. | | |What are the differences between the two objects, people, |Paperback/Hardcover books are something that the reader can | |subjects, or concepts? List as many differences that you can |physically hold, while eBooks are used on computers, tablets, or | |think of. |other hand-held devices. | |Are you going to focus on similarities, differences, or both? | |Explain your rationale. |Both. I want to inform readers on the advantages, disadvantages, | | |and similarities of traditional books vs. eBooks. | |What do you want your readers to learn and understand after |I want to inform readers on the advantages and disadvantages of | |reading your essay? What is the purpose of your essay? |traditional books vs. eBooks. |What 3 parallel points of comparison and/or contrast will you |I will compare and contrast the connection the reader will be | |address in your essay? For example, if you were going to compare |able to make with a physical book vs. that of an eBook, the | |and contrast two teachers, your parallel points might be |differences in accessibility, and prices. | |teacher’s homework policy, teacher’s classroom conduct policy, | | |and teacher’s demeanor. | |Explain why this is an appropriate and workable topic selection | | |for the final assignment. | | | |Many people in the recent years have been using eBooks as opposed| | |to traditional books due to the â€Å"dependency† of technology. |