Motivational Impairment in Schizophrenia

Motivational Impairment in Schizophrenia ANTICIPATING PLEASURE AND EFFORT IN SCHIZOPHRENIA 1 Do People With Schizophrenia Have Difficulty Anticipating Pleasure, Engaging in Effortful Behavior, or Both? David E. Gard, Amy H. Sanchez, Kathryn Cooper, Melissa Fisher, Coleman Garrett, and Sophia Vinogradov Citation Gard, D. E., Sanchez, A. H., Cooper, K., Fisher, M., Garrett, C., Vinogradov, S. (2014, August 18). Do People With Schizophrenia Have Difficulty Anticipating Pleasure, Engaging in Effortful Behavior, or Both?. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/abn0000005 Introduction The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of â€Å"motivational impairment† on the goal directed behavior of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia. This was accomplished by measuring the levels of pleasure (reward) and effortfulness in the activities and future goals of the subjects. These two factors were selected to be measured due to the fact that they are two of the component processes of motivation which has been proven by previous research to be affected by schizophrenia. Research has found inconsistencies in the assessment of pleasure and reward in schizophrenia patients. For instance, while Anhedonia has been frequently reported to be associated with schizophrenia (Herbener Harrow, 2002; see Gard et al., 2014), patients do not report a decrease in pleasure or positive stimuli (Cohen Minor, 2010; see Gard et al., 2014). These inconsistencies have been explained to be the result of clear-cut distinctions between the different temporal components associated with specific types of reward and pleasure. Schultz (2002) and Wise (2002) (as cited in Gard et al., 2014) have shown that there is a physiological difference in how anticipatory pleasure and consummatory (in-the moment) pleasure are processed in the brain. While consummatory pleasure involves serotonergic and opioid systems, anticipatory pleasure involves dopaminergic and mesolimbic projections (Schultz, 2002; Wise, 2002; see Gard et al., 2014). In another study conducted using an Ecological Mome ntary Assessment (EMA), participants with schizophrenia showed similar levels of consummatory pleasure, but depleted levels of anticipatory pleasure (Gard et al., 2007; see Gard et al., 2014). Consequently, pleasure was selected to be a dependent variable (DV) in this study. Individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia have reported difficulty in anticipating rewards (Buck Lysar, 2013; Gard et al., 2007; see Gard et al., 2014) as well as in processing rewards (Strauss, Waltz Gold 2008; see Gard et al., 2014). The link between reward and motivation has been established through the study conducted by Juckel et al. (2006) (as cited in Gard et al., 2014) which showed decreased ventral striatal activation during reward processing from individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia; decreased ventral striatal activation has been associated with anhedonia (Juckel et al., 2006; see Gard et al., 2014). This also relates reward to anticipatory pleasure. Research has indicated that patients with high negative symptoms of schizophrenia have difficulty assessing the effort required to accomplish a task which would provide a high reward (Gold et al., 2013; see Gard et al., 2014). Furthermore, in addition to difficulties assessing the effort involved, patients also appeared to have difficulty putting in the effort required to do a particular task. In relation to reward, Fervaha, Graff-Guerrero, et al. (2013) (as cited in Gard et al., 2014) showed that patients of schizophrenia only had problems when it came to the assessment of the effort involved to achieve a reward, and not when ascertaining the value of a reward. (Fervaha, Graff-Guerrero, et al. 2013; see Gard et al., 2014) In light of the aforementioned findings in past literature, the researchers came up with three assumptions, and the resulting research questions reflected them. The assumptions were that individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia would have: A deficit in anticipatory pleasure Difficulty in anticipating and processing rewards Difficulty assessing and expending the necessary effort required to accomplish a task Using these assumptions, the researchers of the present study came up with 5 research questions. The following has been taken from Gard et al. (2014) Compared with a socio-demographically matched group of healthy participants, do participants with schizophrenia demonstrate fewer daily activities and goals, decreased anticipatory pleasure for their upcoming goals, decreased pleasure-based goals, but intact in-the-moment pleasure? (Hypothesis) Do participants with schizophrenia pursue goals and activities that are less effortful than healthy comparison participants, and do they have difficulty assessing the effort of an upcoming goal? (Hypothesis) Do people with schizophrenia have difficulty completing their goals, and is this related to anticipation or experience of pleasure, or to how effortful the goal is? (Hypothesis) In people with schizophrenia, what is the relationship of anticipatory pleasure and effort exertion or assessment to: cognitive dysfunction, symptoms, and functioning? (Alternative Hypothesis) To what degree could group differences found in Questions 1– 4 be explained by any other non-diagnostic group differences? (Alternative Hypothesis) Participants The selection of participants differed between the experimental and control group. The subjects for the control group were selected through postings on the Internet and the distribution of flyers in the San Francisco Bay Area. Initially, forty-three individuals agreed to participate and signed the informed consent forms. However two of them dropped out; one, finding the study to be too much of a burden, dropped out on the first day, and the other failed to respond to even a third of the phone calls. The subjects for the experimental group were selected from outpatient clinics and day treatment centers in the Bay Area. Fifty patients of schizophrenia initially signed the informed consent forms but three decided to drop out; two dropped out even before the experiment started citing that it was too intrusive, and the other dropped out after two calls on the first day. All in all, the results of the study were formulated based on the results from forty-one subjects without schizophrenia and forty-seven subjects with either schizophrenia (n=31) and schizoaffective disorder (n=16). Diagnoses for the conditions were confirmed for all participants using the DSM-IV-TR. Strict exclusion criteria for the whole sample, and especially for the patient group, were established and implemented. Individuals who had had traumatic head injuries which leads to bouts of unconsciousness, had substance abuse problems in the last six months, mental disorders, or illiterate in English were all excluded. Patients who had been hospitalized in the last three months or had had their medication or dosage changed in the last month were also excluded from the study. Both groups were predominantly white males and had relatively no demographic differences between groups except for the symptoms for the disorder and employment rates. Only 17 percent of the individuals in the patient groups were employed full time or part time (4% and 13% respectively), compared to the 68 percent of full time and part time employees (24% and 44% respectively) in the control group. The experimenters did account for this discrepancy during the results phase. Method Four different types of assessments were used during this study, although the EMA remained the primary form of assessment of pleasure and effort. The Ecological Momentary Assessment is generally used in situations where specific activities and goals of the participants in a study need to be explicated. This study utilized a modified version of the EMA where cell phone calls were used instead of the traditional self-report forms, which were filled at particular intervals of time; cell phones were provided to every participant irrespective of who does or doesn’t own a cell phone. Trained research assistants called each participant four times every day, between 0900hrs and 2100hrs, for seven days to conduct a â€Å"semi-structured† interview. A majority of the questions were open ended and participants were encouraged to give detailed descriptions of their daily activities and goals. Some questions asked them how much pleasure/effort was associated with a particular task; their responses were rated on a Likert Scale (0 = not at all; 5 = extremely). The answers were categorized based on the research questions. Four independent raters then scored the pleasurability, effortfulness, difficulty, and etc†¦ of all the goals and activities reported by the participants on a 0-3 Likert Scale. A subset of participants with no demographic differences from the original sample was also tested to determine the difficulty of the tasks they attempted; also measured on a 0-5 Likert Scale. After the completion of the week of EMA, two independent research assistants travelled to the homes of the participants in order to determine the levels of stimulation and reward provided by the environment. Several subjects from the patient and control group (seven and nine respectively) decided to opt out from this stage of assessment citing different reasons. The levels of stimulation and reward were measured in terms of three elements; aesthetics of the home, availability of media, and social stimulation. These were measured using a combination of a modified version of the Environmental Assessment Scale (EASy) and the Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME). Scores from each of the three elements as well as individual scores were averaged; the results had high inter-rater reliability. Two additional assessments were conducted on the patient group; they were tested for neurocognition, and were also clinically rated for functioning. During the former, 40 subjects with no demographic differences completed a Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (METRICS) Consensus Cognitive Battery. An overall average of their results was used for all the future analyses. During the latter, a Quality of Life Scale (QLS) was used to assess overall functioning of patients with respect to elements such as â€Å"social initiative† and â€Å"capacity for empathy†; â€Å"motivation† and â€Å"anhedonia† were not measured since they were already been used as DVs for the EMA. Procedure Rigorous pilot testing was carried before the actual experiment was conducted. Factors such as whether participants understand what the terms â€Å"activity† and â€Å"goals† meant in the context of the present study were determined during the piloting phase. After participants were selected, orientations on how to properly respond to an EMA during laboratory testing were conducted; they were subsequently required to provide written informed consent before going any further. Most of the basic questions that research assistants asked during the study were previously determined with respect to their effectiveness. Before they were provided a larger sample of the study to be rated, the coders were extensively trained for their task using a smaller subset of the original sample. When the results from the EMA were presented to the four independent raters, the responses from the experimental and control group were presented together in a randomized fashion. Attributes that were to be rated by the coders (such as pleasurable activities and effortful activities) were clearly defined within parameters. As previously mentioned, cell phones were provided to each participant to be used purely for the purposes of the study, and to be returned after its conclusion. The EMA and subsequent home assessments were recorded on audio for post hoc quality assessment. Monetary compensations were provided to every participant upon the completion of the whole study (marked by the returning of the cell phones) and for the completion of the several different assessments conducted during it; the amounts were different for each assessment. Data Analysis The independent variables (IVs) for all stages of assessment were individuals with schizophrenia and individuals without schizophrenia. The dependent variables (DVs), however, weren’t as consistent throughout the experiments, except for pleasure and effort. A number of other variables such as reward, difficulty, and sociability were also measured during the different stages of the study. The basic design of every experiment conducted in the study was to determine how the experimental group was different from the control group with respect to the numerous DVs they were being tested on. Two types of analyses were used to determine the statistical significance of the results obtained. The theoretical principles of these analyses are too convoluted to be properly explained, but for all intents and purposes, they seem to have been implemented correctly. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) was used in EMA analyses. Its effectiveness comes from the fact that it can categorize data into separate levels so that analysis of data from one level wouldn’t influence others. The EMA data were separated into Level one data (the multiple observations of participants) and level two data (between group differences in terms of neurocognition and functioning). For each research question and assessment, separate analyses of variation (ANOVA) were computed and their significance determined. Significance levels obtained through the HLM were presented as â€Å"pseudo-r2†. Independent sample t tests were conducted on the results obtained during the home assessments. It was used to determine whether or not the average level of stimulation that was computed for the control and experimental group was significant, with respect to each of the three aforementioned elements they were being measured on. Furthermore, the significance for the results of all five of the research questions seems to involve computation of t tests. The p values for them varied from 0.5, 0.1, and 0.001. Limitations and Future Research Dr. Marvin Monroe, Department of Psychology, Springfield University Sir, As requested, I have reviewed the study about pleasure and effort in schizophrenia, and it has got a number of interesting findings. Analysis of the results revealed that subjects with schizophrenia indeed set less effortful goals and engaged in less effortful activities. They also found that patients had difficulty determining with accuracy how difficult or effortful a task was going to be (in terms of resultant rewards). However, unlike the two aforementioned findings which were within the researchers’ expected results, the final finding was not; it showed that patients with schizophrenia engaged in more pleasurable activities, and that they set goals that were, and also anticipated by them, to be more pleasurable. I also analyzed the study for potential limitations and further research areas. In terms of limitations, it had many. Employment differences between the two sample groups felt like a deal breaker; however, the researchers did not find any significant difference when they computed the study for employment differences. The researchers themselves pointed out many, if not most, of the limitations that I found in this study. They highlighted four of them in the discussions and gave possible reasons for their occurrence. The foremost limitation according to the researchers was the reason behind the unexpected result which disproved their hypothesis. According to them, the social interactions with the research assistants might have induced pleasurable feelings within some participants. Other limitations include them focusing solely on short-term goals, the relatively new use of home assessment as a tool for measuring motivation in schizophrenia patients (which they also pointed out as a fut ure research area), and the fact that some assessments used fewer number of participants than the actual sample group. The researchers reported that there are no data available on â€Å"the relationship between effort assessment and functioning† and the â€Å"assessment of effort in daily life in Schizophrenia†. Another key area of research could be why social interactions increased anticipatory pleasure in patients with schizophrenia. This study illustrates several different ways in which schizophrenia patients could increase their motivation about everyday activities and goals. It was a very fascinating read. Thank you for giving me the opportunity to review such a study. Sincerely, Ibrahim Fatheen Abdul Sameeu

Marketing Strategy for Marks and Spencer Food Essay -- AVCE Business S

This assignment is about marketing, where I will produce a marketing strategy for a new or existing product. This unit introduces the major principle and functions of marketing; I will look on customer needs, and creating a suitable strategy or marketing mix, which will satisfy customer needs. In this unit I will experience the marketing process from carrying out initial research about a market, investigating the principles of functions of marketing and the way in which it contributes generating income/profit in a business. Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational goals. Marketing also involves analyzing customer needs, securing information needed to design and produce goods or services that match buyer expectations, and creating and maintaining relationships with customers and suppliers. Marketing is essential to the success of any business. Its primary aim is to enable businesses to meet the needs of their customers and potential customers, whether then it’s for profit or not. To make my strategy successful for business it must: Ø Understand customer needs Ø Understand and keep ahead of competition Ø Communicate effectively with its customers to satisfy customer expectations. Ø Coordinate its functions to achieve marketing aims Ø Be aware of constraints on marketing activities I will also be considering the importance of developing and maintaining a relationship with its customers, potential customers and other stakeholders. I will look upon on establishing customer needs, methods of analysing marketing opportunities, and the m... ...ons can exert a major influence upon the stores’ accessibility and attractiveness to consumers. Planning the selection process as carefully as possible and using methods described should maximise the success. Marks and Spencer pays particular attention to social and geodemographics, along with consumer spend, before deciding on a location. Own brands are desirable products to offer, as they offer profitable margins and a high level of control over the marketing aspects of management. Efficient use of these products can increase store loyalty. As I did a oral presentation I used few pictures and such to show the packaging design, as I talked about the other product and the company, and mainly on one of the marketing mix ‘the product’. My presentation could have been bit longer with more details and also posters to show big images then small ones.

Effect And Management Of Stroke Health And Social Care Essay

A shot, antecedently known medically as a cerebrovascular accident ( CVA ) , is the quickly underdeveloped loss of encephalon map ( s ) due to disturbance in the blood supply to the encephalon. This can be due to ischemia ( deficiency of blood flow ) caused by obstruction ( thrombosis, arterial intercalation ) , or a bleeding ( escape of blood ) .As a consequence, the affected country of the encephalon is unable to map, taking to inability to travel one or more limbs on one side of the organic structure, inability to understand or explicate address, or an inability to see one side of the ocular field. A shot is a medical exigency and can do lasting neurological harm, complications, and even decease. . A shot is on occasion treated in a infirmary with thrombolysis ( besides known as a â€Å" coagulum fellow † ) . Post-stroke bar may affect the disposal of antiplatelet drugs such as acetylsalicylic acid and dipyridamole control and decrease of high blood pressure, the usage of lipid-lowering medicines, and in selected patients with carotid endarterectomy, the usage of decoagulants. Treatment to retrieve any lost map is stroke rehabilitation, affecting wellness professions such as address and linguistic communication therapy, physical therapy and occupational therapy. Definition The traditional definition of shot, devised by the World Health Organization in the 1970s, is a â€Å" neurological shortage of cerebrovascular cause that persists beyond 24 hours or is interrupted by decease within 24 hours † . Epidemiology Stroke could shortly be the most common cause of decease worldwide.It affects about 700,000 persons each twelvemonth ; about 500,000 are new shots and 200,000 are perennial strokes.The incidence of shot additions exponentially from 30 old ages of age, and etiology varies by age. 95 % of shots occur in people age 45 and older, and two-thirds of shots occur in those over the age of 65 old ages. A individual ‘s hazard of deceasing if he or she does hold a shot besides increases with age. However, stroke can happen at any age, including in foetuss. Family members may hold a familial inclination for shot or portion a life style that contributes to stroke. Higher degrees of Von Willebrand factor are more common amongst people who have had ischaemic shot for the first clip, the lone important familial factor was the individual ‘s blood type. Work forces are 25 % more likely to endure shots than adult females, yet 60 % of deceases from shot occur in women.Some hazard factors for shot apply merely to adult females. Primary among these are gestation, childbearing, climacteric and the intervention thereof ( HRT ) . The prevalence of shot, WHO estimated that in 1990, out of 9.4 million deceases an India 6,19,000 were due to stroke.EtiologyNarrowing or complete closing of the vass providing the encephalon by thrombosis or intercalation. Arteritis Collagen vascular diseases-SLE, Polyarteritis Nodosa Bleeding Vertical compaction Arterial crampThrombotic shot:In thrombotic stroke a thrombus ( blood coagulum ) normally forms around atherosclerotic plaques. A thrombus itself ( even if non-occluding ) can take to an embolic shot, if the thrombus breaks off, at which point it is called an â€Å" embolus. †Embolic strokeAn embolic shot refers to the obstruction of an arteria by an arterial embolus, a travelling atom or dust in the arterial blood stream arising from elsewhere. An embolus is most often a thrombus, but it can besides be a figure of other substances including fat ( e.g. from bone marrow in a broken bone ) , air, malignant neoplastic disease cells or bunchs of bacteriums ( normally from infective endocarditis ) .Venous thrombosisCerebral venous fistula thrombosis leads to stroke due to locally increased venous force per unit area, which exceeds the force per unit area generated by the arterias. Infarcts are more likely to undergo haemorrhagic transmutation ( leaking of blood into the damaged cou ntry ) than other types of ischaemic shot.Intracerebral bleedingIt by and large occurs in little arterias or arteriolas and is normally due to high blood pressure, intracranial vascular deformities ( including cavernous angiomas or arteriovenous deformities ) , intellectual amyloid angiopathy, or infarcts into which secondary bleeding has Occurred.Other possible causes are trauma, shed blooding upsets, starchlike angiopathy, illicit drug usage ( e.g. pep pills or cocaine ) .Types of StrokeStrokes can be classified into two major classs: ischaemic and hemorrhagic. Ischemic shots are those that are caused by break of the blood supply. Hemorrhagic shots are the 1s which result from rupture of a blood vas or an unnatural vascular construction. About 87 % of shots are caused by ischaemia, and the balance by bleeding. Some bleedings develop inside countries of ischaemia ( â€Å" haemorrhagic transmutation † Ischemic Stroke In an ischaemic shot, blood supply to portion of the encephalon is decreased, taking to disfunction of the encephalon tissue in that country. There are four grounds why this might go on: Thrombosis ( obstructor of a blood vas by a blood coagulum organizing locally ) . Embolism ( obstructor due to an embolus from elsewhere in the organic structure ) . Systemic hypoperfusion ( general lessening in blood supply, e.g. in daze ) . Venous thrombosis. Stroke without an obvious account is termed â€Å" cryptogenic † ( of unknown beginning ) ; this constitutes 30-40 % of all ischaemic shots.Haemorrhagic StrokeIntracranial bleeding is the accretion of blood anyplace within the skull vault. A differentiation is made between intra-axial bleeding ( blood inside the encephalon ) and extra-axial bleeding ( blood inside the skull but outside the encephalon ) . Intra-axial bleeding is due to intraparenchymal bleeding or intraventricular bleeding ( blood in the ventricular system ) . The chief types of extra-axial bleeding are extradural haematoma ( shed blooding between the dura mater and the skull ) , subdural haematoma ( in the subdural infinite ) and subarachnoid bleeding ( between the arachnidian mater and Indian arrowroot mater ) . Most of the haemorrhagic shot syndromes have specific symptoms ( e.g. concern, old caput hurt ) . Signs and symptoms Common Signs of a Stroke: Numbness or failing of the face, arm, or leg, particularly on one side of your organic structure. Trouble seeing in one or both eyes. Trouble walking, giddiness, loss of balance or coordination. Confusion or problem speech production or understanding address. Severe concern with no known cause. Symptoms may include: Stroke symptoms typically start all of a sudden, over seconds to proceedingss, and in most instances do non come on farther. The symptoms depend on the country of the encephalon affected. The more extended the country of encephalon affected, the more maps that are likely to be lost. Most signifiers of shot are non associated with concern, apart from subarachnoid bleeding and intellectual venous thrombosis and on occasion intracerebral bleeding. Simple Test for the Presence of Stroke: If the patient is witting, have him/her stick their lingua out and bespeak them to travel it from left to compensate. If they can non execute this simple undertaking opportunities are they are holding a shot. Hand Grasps: Have the patient catch your custodies and squeezing. Marked difference in the strength between left and right denotes possible shot. The weaker side is the side the shot is happening on. Mouth Droop: If you notice a unquestionably downward sag on either side of the oral cavity besides can be a mark of a cerebrovascular accident is go oning. A simple failing may come on to an inability to travel the arm and leg on one side of the organic structure.Stroke Warning Signs:Harmonizing to ; The American Stroke Association the warning marks of shot are: Sudden numbness or failing of the face, arm or leg, particularly on one side of the organic structure. Sudden confusion, problem speech production or apprehension. Sudden problem seeing in one or both eyes. Sudden problem walking, giddiness, loss of balance or co-ordination. Sudden, terrible concern with no known cause.Pathophysiology:Break of Blood Flow for few proceedingssa† Ã¢â‚¬Å"Complete intellectual circulatory apprehension ( Ischaemia )a† Ã¢â‚¬Å"Ischaemic cascade – a figure of damaging but reversible eventsa† Ã¢â‚¬Å"Perturbation of Energy Metabolism due to let go of of extra Neurotransmitters ( glutamate, aspartate )a† Ã¢â‚¬Å"Inability of encephalon cells to bring forth energya† Ã¢â‚¬Å"Increased Ca inflowACa+ Intracellular phospholipid Stimulates release of azotic oxide & A ; cryptokines signifiers Free groups Damages the encephalon cells furtherHazard factorsModifiable hazard factors High blood force per unit area and atrial fibrillation. High blood cholesterin degrees Diabetess Cigarette smoke ( active and inactive ) Heavy intoxicant ingestion and drug usage Lack of physical activity Fleshiness Unhealthy diet. Oral preventives Transeunt Ischemic AttacksNon-Modifiable hazard factorsAge Race Gender Family History of StrokeDamages and functional disablement due to strokeDisability affects 75 % of shot subsisters plenty to diminish their employability. Stroke can impact patients physically, mentally, emotionally, or a combination of the three disfunctions correspond to countries in the encephalon that have been damaged. Physical disablements that can ensue from shot include: Muscle failing, Numbness, Pressure sores, Pneumonia, Incontinence, Apraxia ( inability to execute erudite motions ) , troubles transporting out day-to-day activities, Appetite loss, Speech loss, vision loss, Pain. If the shot is terrible plenty, or in a certain location such as parts of the brain-stem, coma or decease can ensue. Emotional jobs ensuing from shot can ensue from direct harm to emotional centres in the encephalon or from defeat and trouble accommodating to new restrictions. Post-stroke emotional troubles include anxiousness, panic onslaughts, level affect ( failure to show emotions ) , mania, apathy, and psychosis. Cognitive shortages ensuing from shot include perceptual upsets, address jobs, dementedness, and jobs with attending and memory. A shot sick person may be unaware of his or her ain disablements, a status called anosognosia. In a status called hemispatial disregard, a patient is unable to go to to anything on the side of infinite antonym to the damaged hemisphere. Complications: Inability to take part in activities of day-to-day life Pain Recurrent shots. Emotional troublesConsequence of shot on arm and manus mapStroke is the figure one cause of neurological disablement in many states. About 85 % of patients admitted to hospital for shot present with jobs with their weaponries and custodies. Stroke-related physical damages such as musculus failing, hurting, and spasticity can take to a decrease in the ability to utilize the stroke-affected arm and manus in day-to-day activities. In fact, the turning away of utilizing one ‘s stroke-affected arm is so common, that there is even a name for it â€Å" learned non-use syndrome † . Unfortunately, non utilizing the stroke-affected arm can take to a farther loss in strength, scope of gesture, and all right motor accomplishments. These can so ensue in contractures, hurting and terrible bone loss ( osteoporosis ) .ManagementMedical direction:Understating residuary defects Hypovolaemic haemodilution Anticoagulants Antiplatelet therapy Antihypertensive drugsPhysiotherapy Management:Passive mobilisation Passive neuromuscular facilitation Constraint induced motion therapy Balance preparation Bobath therapy

Why Teenagers Are Affected By Depression - 1147 Words

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